Tuesday, August 17, 2021

Does Cholesterol Cause Heart Disease?

 

 

https://www.tiktok.com/@mohanaturoholistics/video/7202991888549350683

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQPfYghxXQI

 

Dear Dr (Mrs) N. Kandiah,

Thank you for requesting my comment on the article you sent below in parenthesis and in different colours.    

 “Pharma companies extracted USD 2 trillion from consumers in the name of cholesterol level treatment.   What a shame on medical research fraud and authorities. Their incompetency costed USD 2 trillion to people those who were fit and healthy.    *Cholesterol* is finally officially removed from Naughty List. The US government has finally accepted that *cholesterol* is not a _nutrient of concern_. *doing a U-turn* on their warnings to us to stay away from high-cholesterol foods since the 1970s to avoid heart disease and clogged arteries.   This means eggs, butter, full-fat dairy products, nuts, coconut oil and meat have now been classified as *safe* and have been officially removed from the _nutrients of concern_ list.   The US Department of Agriculture, which is responsible for updating the guidelines every five years, stated in its findings for 2015: "Previously, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended that cholesterol intake be limited to no more than 300 mg/day.  

 "The 2015 DGAC will not bring forward this recommendation because available evidence shows no appreciable relationship between consumption of dietary cholesterol and serum (blood) cholesterol, consistent with the AHA/ACC (American Heart Association / American College of Cardiology).  The Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee will, in response, no longer warn people against eating high-cholesterol foods and will instead focus on sugar as the main substance of dietary concern.   US cardiologist Dr Steven Nissen said: _It's the right decision_. _We got the dietary guidelines wrong. They've been wrong for decades_."   When we eat more foods rich in this compound, our bodies make less. If we deprive ourselves of foods high in cholesterol - such as eggs, butter, and liver - our body revs up.    

The Real Truth about Cholesterol. The majority of the cholesterol in you is produced by your liver. Your brain is primarily made up of cholesterol. It is essential for nerve cells to function.    Cholesterol is the basis for the creation of all the steroid hormones, including oestrogen, testosterone, and corticosteroids.    *High cholesterol in the body is a clear indication which shows the liver of the individual is in good health*   

Dr. George V. Mann M.D. Associate Director of the Framingham study for the incidence and prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and its risk factors states:  _Saturated fats and cholesterol in the diet are not the cause of coronary heart disease. *That myth is the greatest deception of the century, perhaps of any century*_   *Cholesterol is the biggest medical scam of all time* There is no such thing as *bad Cholesterol*   

So you can stop trying to change your Cholesterol level. Studies prove beyond a doubt, cholesterol doesn't cause heart disease and it won't stop a heart attack.   *The majority of people that have heart attacks have normal cholesterol levels. *   OUR BODY NEEDS 950 mg OF CHOLESTEROL FOR DAILY METABOLISM AND THE LIVER IS THE MAIN Producer. ONLY 15% OF CHOLESTEROL IS BEING DONATED BY THE FOOD WE EAT.    

 

If the fat content is less in the food we eat, our liver has to work more to maintain the level at 950 mg.   *If the cholesterol level is high in our body, it shows the liver is working perfect. *   Experts say that there is nothing like LDL or HDL.  ………….. ….. *Cholesterol is not found to create blocks anywhere in the human body*.   Please share the recent facts about CHOLESTEROL”  

 

 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/02/10/feds-poised-to-withdraw-longstanding-warnings-about-dietary-cholesterol/utm_term=.1982832f86fa

 

Thank you for the post above.   

 

I have written many times in the past that cholesterol has nothing to do with heart disease, and neither egg, brain or liver food all containing high cholesterol have anything to do with high blood cholesterol, or with heart disease.

In fact, the homeostatic feedback mechanism of the liver can cause the liver to produce 10 times more cholesterol endogenously than all the cholesterol we can eat through food every day. 

This means the amount of cholesterol from food pales into nothing compared to what the liver can synthesize.   

 

For instance, one large egg contains about 186 mg of cholesterol all found in the yolk. Suppose we consume 10 eggs a day. The intake from 10 eggs alone amounts to 1860 mg.   

 

An adult weighing   68 to 82 kg should have about 4,500 to 5,700 mL. of blood.    Let us use 5 litres (5,000 mL) as an average for easy calculation for illustration.   

 

This implies that even if he eats 10 eggs a day, his dietary contribution from eggs would only raise his blood level of cholesterol by only 37 mg per 100 mL, not even wanting to consider that about 0.4 g (400 mg) of cholesterol is being excreted through the bile each day.   

 

I have eaten at least two eggs almost every day all my life since I was a child and until today at the age of 82, I have never had any high cholesterol or heart problems.   Furthermore, in 1969 when I started working at the Institute for Medical Research, for at least 10 years I used to go an Indian food stall behind Indian money lenders shop in Lebuh Ampang in Kuala Lumpur and have my favourite lunch of Indian curry goat’s brain cooked with curry and eggs there every day.   

 

But when I checked my blood level cholesterol, it was always normal, and its level has never been raised despite so much curried goat’s brains.  I have eaten daily for 10 years. 

 

I might have at the same time consumed a large amount of choline from the eggs and brain which is supposed to be excellent for the brain and nervous system?   Brain has the highest amount of cholesterol among all the cholesterol-rich foods like egg yolk and liver. I never till today have any problem with high cholesterol or heart disease all my life. 

 

In fact, eggs and brain food are very high in choline which is very essential for brain function and neurological development throughout life. See my write up attached on the benefits of eggs here:  

 

 http://flfam.org.my/files/Dr%20Lim%20Ju%20Boo%20presentation%20-Hen%20Egg.pdf

or here in alternative link:

https://taionn.blogspot.com/2017/09/dr-lim-ju-boos-slide-presentation-on.html

 

 When I was studying in London in 1964 my late professor, Professor John Yudkin who was a Professor of Nutrition, University of London already told us cholesterol does not cause heart disease, but refined white sugar does.   

 Prodessor John Yudkin here: 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Yudkin


It was at the time when this theory that cholesterol causes heart disease was rampantly believed among doctors who influenced the lay public to believe the same. 

 

 When i was working in various Divisions - the Nutrition Division, Community Medicine, Epidemioloigy and Clinical Research  at the Institute for Medical Research (IMR) in 1968 - 1994, I used to sign not just one, ten, or a hundred, but tens of thousands of analytical reports on blood cholesterol levels in blood samples sent to us by tens of hundreds of government hospitals every day.   

 

They were sent to IMR from all over Malaysia, from East and West Malaysia, and from hospitals near the Thai border in the north to those in Johore and Johor Bahru in the south.   In our analysis we found no relationship between what the doctors wrote there in their clinical notes about patients suspected of having heart disease, ischemia and heart attack and their serum cholesterol levels There were 3 parties involved here: 

 

1. The Patient 2. The doctor 3. 

 

We, the analyst helping out the doctor   Initially, among the three parties we put the blame on ourselves first. We thought we were wrong due to an analytical error. However, when we saw what the doctor wrote there in their clinical notes did not tally with our findings, we requested our medical lab technologists to repeat the analysis.   The return results were the same each time for tens of hundreds of repeated analyses. 

 

The repeat results each time showed only one or two milligram per litre of blood difference from the original.   Not satisfied, we requested a recovery analysis to be done in case the analytical techniques were unreliable. We then used known amounts of pure cholesterol added into the blood samples, and the recovery amount was exactly the same as what we added. 

 

So there was no analytical error involved on our part.   So, there are only two remaining parties left: either the doctor's preliminary diagnosis was wrong, or the patient lied to the doctor.   In any case we did not see other investigations such as ECG to look for ST elevation, and cardiac enzymes such as myoglobin, troponin and creatine kinase being done by the clinicians which would have greatly helped us with the diagnosis.   

 

They only requested for serum cholesterol. So, we just did that, and, in most cases, we found no relationship between what the clinicians wrote there and our lab findings.  

 

I already knew by then John Yudkin was dead right, but I could not voice this out because of the very strong belief and mindset of the doctors who still believe cholesterol was the cause of their patient’s heart problems because of that very influential and famous longitudinal Framingham Heart Study that started in 1948 and is still going on till today on cohorts that initially found cholesterol caused heart disease. 

 But as the study was followed up years later, they found there were other factors such as diabetes, stress, high blood pressure, infection, sedentary lifestyles, obesity... etc. etc., that were the causative root causes of heart disease, and not just cholesterol. 

 

I already suspected there was no relationship at all between ischemic heart events and cholesterol by then, but I could not voice this out because of the very strong ingrained belief among doctors that high blood cholesterol was the cause.   

 

Then around 1970’s the Board of Directors of the same Framingham Heart Study issued  an official statement that cholesterol is not the primary cause of heart disease but other factors they later found were the  causes But by then the big drug companies have already capitalized on Framingham earlier study, and they started to produce their various types and generations of  statin groups of anti-cholesterol drugs such as atorvastatin fluvastatin, lovastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin into the market. The amount of these statins prescribed rose to US $88 million in 2002 to US $ 60 billion annually due to such rampant beliefs among doctors and the lay public who believed the same.      

 

Unfortunately doctors hardly read medical journals and papers published on new discoveries but they just listen to drug salespeople who promote their products.   After all the big statins producing companies have already invested tens of US $ billion to produce these anti-cholesterol drugs, and hence they need to continue to push them to the doctors to get back their investments despite Framingham Heart Study earlier retraction.   

 

What can we do as they are so powerful financially to overpower the medical profession and brain wash them thoroughly with their drug of choice. We all in research and in the pharmaceutical industry know what is going on between the drug industry and the doctors as they work hand in gloves together.  

 

Numerous studies following the Framingham Heart Study also showed that many other factors such as stress, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy food and harmful nutrition are the main causes of cardiovascular events, and not cholesterol. 

 

 Citing just one example will do, it was found that stress may be more important than cholesterol as the causation of cardiovascular disease, and this is explained below in No 1: 

 

1.       https://www.stress.org/why-reducing-stress-is-much-more-important-than-lowering-cholesterol

 

The second one is a video on "The Town of Allopath" highlighting the deception by drug companies to treat non-existing causes of disease.

 

2.       https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ZUPYZ2ICvU

 

The second one may also be accessed by typing "The Town called Allopath" directly into Google search. Thank you.

 

The release of harmful stress hormones such as adrenaline in the fight or flight response may be one of the causes.   When the stress “fight or flight” response episode is over, the stress hormone adrenaline breaks down and releases cascade of extremely damaging free radicals into the bloodstream causing extensive damage to all the cells, tissues, organs and systems in the body including the inner intima linings of the coronary blood vessels to the heart. This causes an inflammatory lesion in the coronaries to block blood flow to the heart. 

 

 This has completely nothing to do with cholesterol deposits as there are other deposits that cause atherosclerotic plaques to be formed as well.   What it actually does is, the free radicals as an singlet oxygen radical oxidizes the low density cholesterol in particular to make them become very sticky and gummy allowing other deposits to adhere to the already damaged intima of the coronaries, and this may compound to further damage 

                 

Atherosclerosis and cholesterol: 

 

Pure cholesterol monohydrate is a very pale-yellow substance practically insoluble in water (less than 0.5 mg/100 ml of water).

 

But it is slightly soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol (1.29% w/w at 20 °C), methanol, dimethylformamide (DMF), chloroform, and pet ether.

 

When pure cholesterol powder is touched with the fingers, it does not stick onto the fingers at all. It is neither gummy or sticky but just powdery to feel, and it floats in water.

 

Hence there is no reason why it must stick onto the inner surface of blood vessels to form a cholesterol plaque there unless oxidized by free radicals, especially the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol that may cause it to be gummy trapping other substances such as fibrin (from blood clotting), dead blood cell, fatty materials, calcium, etc to form an atherosclerotic plaque there. When plaque (fatty deposits) clogs your arteries, that’s called atherosclerosis. 

 

Hyo-Soo Kim of Seoul National University and his team characterized different types of cells that play a role in calcium accumulation in blood vessels. 

 

 They reported the novel concept that immature, stem-cell like cells have the potential to become either osteoblasts or osteoclasts, and that a drug can push these cells toward becoming osteoclasts instead of osteoblasts.   

 

Their study offers new insights into how calcium builds up in the walls of blood vessels during advanced stages of atherosclerosis and paves the way for long-sought therapeutic strategies to combat this common problem. To study the cause of calcium build-up in vessel walls, Kim and his team focused on calcifying progenitor cells—immature cells that can turn into specialized cells capable of either promoting or reversing calcium accumulation (osteoblasts or osteoclasts, respectively). 

 

They isolated these cells from the aortas of mice and sorted them into two groups. Both groups originated from bone marrow—spongy tissue found inside bones—and expressed a cell surface protein called stem cell antigen-1 (Sca-1), but only one group expressed another cell surface protein called platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα). 

 

 Moreover, both types of cells had a tendency to turn into osteoblast-like cells and thereby promote atherosclerotic calcium build-up. But cells expressing both Sca-1 and PDGFRα were more committed to the osteoblastic lineage, whereas those expressing only Sca-1 were bidirectional:   they could also become osteoclast-like cells.   

 

The findings suggest that these bidirectional cells could be targeted by new therapies that shift their fate toward the osteoclastic lineage, thereby preventing calcium accumulation in blood vessels. 

 

 Their study did not show any cholesterol being involved in plaque formation. Hope this comment helps answer your article and question you sent. 

 

Jb lim


Sunday, August 15, 2021

Can Our Body Adapt to Covid mRNA Vaccine?

 General Adaptation Syndrome in Covid Vaccines

 

 

by lim ju boo

 

 

Not many doctors know that when our body is continuously being challenged, insulted, and injured by any threat such as chemicals, toxins, internal or external pollutants, bacteria, viruses, parasites, cigarette smoking, continuous drugs and medications, chronic consumption of  alcohol, perpetual bad and harmful lifestyles, including harmful food substances, and food additives..etc, the body initially tries to defend itself by a an acute stage of a crisis before adapting silently due to its homeostasis and buffering systems.

 

If a threat, for instance, a bacterial infection is initiated, it will respond with a fever, and the immune system will be elicited with an increase in the various components of the white blood cell count, namely the phagocytes, T-cells, B-cells, natural killer cells, helper cells, etc, and  the various immunoglobulin will be produced in the first acute  stage

 

See  article on our wonderful immune system here:

 

https://scientificlogic.blogspot.com/search?q=our+wonderful+immune+system

 

 

But if the infection is not checked, it may become chronic, and the immune system may no longer respond. It may go into the second asymptomatic stage where the body may no longer show  signs or symptoms.

 

 

In another example of chronic lifestyle disease, if a healthy individual consumes a lot of salt, he will respond with thirst which is the normal first stage of an active physiological response to force the individual to drink a lot of water to get rid of the excessive salt.

 

However, if he continues with these unhealthy dietary habits, he may lose his sense of thirst, sliding him into the second stage of an asymptomatic phase whereby there are no longer any warning signs or symptoms as warning bells of thirst as the body begins to adapt to a high salt  intake.

 

But if he stops excessive salt consumption at this reversible stage, he goes back to the first phase of a general adaptation where he regains his thirst when excessive salt intake is consumed.

 

But if he insists on habitual excessive salt intake as part of his dietary lifestyle, he sinks to the third irreversible stage of a syndrome that may manifest in high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.

 

 

Another example is smoking. If an individual who has never smoked in his life, is offered a cigarette, his first response is coughing as a reflex action where his body tries to get rid of the smoke entering his airways and lungs.

 

But after many continuous exposures to the smoke, he loses this protective reflex action, and begins to enjoy smoking entering his lungs as the second phase of adaptation. But if he stops smoking at this second reversible adaptation, he regains his cough reflex if offered a cigarette again.  

 

 

But if he continues to smoke, he goes into the third irreversible stage of exhaustion which may result in the damage to his  airways and the small air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs.

 

 

This may lead to conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema and chronic bronchitis, and in  most cases lung cancer.

 

Normally, when the body is challenged by any kind of external or internal threat, whether from toxic substances, pollutants, or even self-induced harmful lifestyles, it will initially vigorously fight back  in an acute first phase by showing signs and symptoms as warming bells. 

 

But when that threat  is removed, the body recovers uneventfully from the injury and it heals itself. For instance, it is well-known that a cut can heal itself without any medicine if we just bandage it up and protect it from further injury.

 

 

However if toxic substances such as chemicals, pathogenic agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites…etc, termed as stressors were to persist, whether internally or externally, whether intentionally or unintentionally, the body will refuse to respond anymore  as signs and symptoms.

 

 

 It then goes into an asymptomatic phrase whereby it just does not want to respond to a crisis anymore. The body remains symptomatically “healthy” as if nothing happens.  

 

The individual then becomes a potential candidate for a chronic disease  in the later stage of  his life.

 

Without the symptoms he continues to “enjoy” life, and that he is alright and healthy such as clearly seen in patients who later developed  diabetes, high blood pressure, kidney disease, heart and lungs, endocrine and metabolic disorders.  

 

Unfortunately during the second reversible stage, if he does  nothing to remove the stressors through lifestyle changes or dietary modifications, the body sinks into the third chronic  irreversible stage 

 

 

During an initial active crisis of a disease, he may just take drugs and medication to mask or to suppress the symptoms even though  they are the warning bells instead of addressing the root causes.

 

 

As the years passed, the existing stressors remain to continuously insult and injure the body relentlessly.

 

 

In response, the body goes from the first acute warning bell phrase into the second silent (asymptomatic) stage, and then into the third and irreversible stage whereby the entire body systems may shut  down.

 

 

This classical theory in medicine  unfortunately is  not known by most  doctors  because they were never  taught about the healing crisis of a disease during their medical training.

 

 

Doctors are mainly taught to  diagnose a disease  using different diagnostic procedures, and how to manage them mainly through  drugs and medications, and in some cases through surgery that does help in the event of a mechanical obstruction.

 

 

There is no doubt medication does helps in acute disease conditions, but it is also important to look at the root causes if the condition persists instead of suppressing the symptoms each time, as this may cause the condition to become chronic due to the presence of prolonged stressors

 

 

In the good practice of medicine priority should be given in preventive and rehabilitative medicine, health education, and helping the patient with dietary, nutrition and lifestyle changes instead of solely using drugs to alter a chemical pathology  

 

This very beautiful classical stress theory of medicine called General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) was put forward by a very famous and well-known Canadian physician Dr. Hans Selye (1907–1982) who was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Medicine or in Physiology.

 

This same classical theory in medicine was already known and well-recognized  in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in their yin and yang classical theory of internal medicine over 2,500 years ago.

 

 

Han Selye came out with the GAS theory where he described how the body initially tries to fight to defend itself in the first acute stage of a disease with signs and symptoms as warning bells, and if not addressed and the stressors not removed at the root cause(s), it goes into the second silent stage whereby the body defenses go into exhaustion and refuse to respond further as it silently tries to adapt. 

 

 

But if the root causes are addressed and removed even in the second stage of the asymptomatic stage, the condition becomes reversible into the first active phrase of a disease whereby symptoms and signs start to appear again. This is dubbed by Dr. Han Selye as the “healing crisis” before it disappears completely into health.

 

 

But if the stressors persist beyond the second silent phrase, the condition spirals into the irreversible degenerative stage with multiple other disorders showing up for which more and more medications at increasing higher and higher doses being given, causing multiple disorders spiraling down into a vicious cycle

 

 

Dr Hans Selye theory on stress-induced diseases is normally seen in  lifestyle diseases.

 

 

This imbalance with Nature internally and externally is precisely the same as the yin yang theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine of Huangdi neijing translated as The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic of Internal Medicine dating back more than 2,500 BCE where they also documented the various causes of diseases due to internal and external stresses.

 

 

In the classical theory of TCM, they prescribe the need to  balance the yin and yang stressors within and outside the body for optimal health, for preventive medicine, and in the treatment of disease as opposed to conventional medicine where they rely on drugs to alter, replace or inhibit a chemical pathology.  

 

 

In short, the yin and yang imbalance of TCM within and outside the body is believed to be the principal root cause of a chronic illness.

 

 

That theory of TCM to me in my personal 21st Century scientific understanding of medicine is so convincing as it was 2,500 years ago, and this theory has been unparalleled by any other system of medicine until Dr. Hans Selye put forward his same classical theory on the General Adaptation Syndrome as the causes of illnesses, including even genetically-mediated ones that cannot expressed itself if the yin-yang balance is in place.

 

 

Application of GAS in Covid Vaccine:

 

 

On this note, let us now look at some of the issues pertaining to the vaccines, particularly the mRNA version that has been hotly being disagreed among medical and scientific experts around the world in their belief  that it causes more harm than good.

 

 

According to most experts in molecular biology / medicine, molecular genetics and immunology around the world,  they argued that the mRNA vaccine once injected into the body will remain in the body forever, and it will begin to destroy the body.

 

 

They argued the mRNA can neither be destroyed, digested by phagocytes, detoxified by the liver, nor can they be excreted by the kidneys, exhaled  out into the breath nor into the sweat. They remain in the body forever as a foreign nucleotide acting as permanent stressors  to induce the body to produce the spike proteins even long after the Covid-19 pandemic is over.

 

 

The mRNA vaccine is genetically programmed to work by inducing the body cells to produce the spike protein to challenge the immune system to respond with antibodies.

 

 

The function of the messenger RNA (mRNA) is to deliver the protein blueprint from a cell's DNA to its ribosomes, which are the "machines" that drive protein synthesis.

 

Transfer RNA (tRNA) then carries the appropriate amino acids into the ribosome for inclusion in the new protein.

 

 

More precisely, transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template from the body  where the code in the DNA is converted into a complementary RNA code.

 

 

Translation is the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template where the code in the mRNA is converted into an amino acid sequence of a protein such as the spike protein.

 

 

In simple language, the mRNA are just like messengers or delivery boys to remember, and to pass on the message to produce the spike protein by the DNA in the cells of a human body.

 

 

This means, the  body cells just obey a genetically-engineered programme to translate (deliver) the spike protein automatically like a robot to be presented to the immune system to attack.

 

  

This is good, if the mRNA remains temporarily in the body after it has done its job.

 

 

But according to molecular biologists and molecular medical experts, the mRNA will remain in the body, and will continue to induce the body cells to obediently produce the spike protein non-stop, thus acting as permanent stressors presented to the immune system.

 

In such an unfortunate scenario the immune system will fail to respond any longer as it breaks down into exhaustion into the second stage due to a continuing pathogenic challenge, based on the same GAS theory so beautifully described by Dr Hans Selye.

 

If the spike protein persists even after the second stage of an immune exhaustion, the body will remain chronically  immune-silent.

 

It may fail to respond anymore. In such a scenario, it will give rise to opportunistic multiple infections unrelated to Covid.

 

It has now become a genetically-engineered runaway programme that can neither be stopped or reversed.

 

 

What may be even more damaging is, the immune system may be so confused and unable to recognize if the spike protein was  endogenous in origin, meaning naturally produced by the own body, or was it actually a foreign protein exogenous in origin it was forced to express?

 

 

In such an immunological scenario, the body may respond by producing anti nuclear antibodies to destroy all proteins in their paths including its own body organ and system proteins causing self-induced autoimmune diseases.

 

 

This may also result in myocarditis and pericarditis from reported cases observed in pockets of the population taking the mRNA vaccines.

 

 

Damages to the  lungs, kidney, blood clots,  and disorders of the nervous system resulting in  neuropathies associated with this vaccine  have already been reported in various countries.  

 

 

It may not happen until months or years later with Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome, before the possibility of multi-organ shut down.

 

 

However it is fair to say such an event may or may not happen in the distant future as far as I know as we have no clear evidence at the moment.

 

Should such an event arise, it is like choosing between the devil (the Covid itself) or the deep blue sea (the aftermath of mRNA vaccine)?

 

 

This may be the scenario at least in theory based on Hans Selye General Adaptation Syndrome.

 

But let’s hope this does not happen, and that the body may know how  to recognize and to deal with foreign nucleotides and artificially-induced proteins introduced into the body.

 

 

For the moment we have no clear evidence what the future events would be like after the pandemic curve flattens.      

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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